This paper examines the osteological evidence for decapitation from 30 skeletal assemblages dated to the medieval period (6th to 16th century) from Ireland. This is the first time that these data have been examined in a comparative manner and across the population of medieval Ireland. Decapitation is traditionally presented and interpreted in the literature on a case study basis with decapitations being attributed to an action that was carried out as a direct result of warfare or as judicial practice. This paper aims to use the osteological data to examine these interpretations in terms of the Irish data and to use these data along with historical and literary sources to try to gain a fuller understanding of decapitation in medieval Ireland.
As Tracy and Massey (
In total 56 sites of a medieval date (6th to 16th century)
displaying osteological evidence of violent trauma have been analysed, with a total
of 30 of these displaying evidence for decapitation. The number of decapitations per
site ranges from 13 from No. 16, Eustace Street, Dublin to just one at a number of
sites (see Figure
Distribution map of all sites with evidence of decapitation (Map used courtesy of Mr Nick Hogan, Department of Archaeology, University College Cork).
If decapitation was encountered, a full description of the decapitation was completed. This included which bones were affected, the direction of the blow, any indication of what weapon may have been employed, and a general description of the individual cut marks associated with the decapitation. This information was expanded upon with a full schematic drawing of the location of the decapitation related wounds and a photographic record to fully record the trauma. All of the individuals with evidence of decapitation were analysed in exactly the same manner in order to allow comparisons to be drawn between the individuals themselves and between the sites.
The sites are divided into three categories according to date on the distribution
map (see Figure
The distribution is undoubtedly affected by archaeological visibility and the large number of recent archaeological rescue excavations in advance of road projects and development in the east of the country in the vicinity of County Dublin. An attempt to address this was made by analysing remains from throughout the country where available, especially from older excavations where no osteological analysis had been previously carried out.
When the individuals displaying evidence of decapitation are placed into age
categories (see page 2) it can be seen that the majority of decapitations
occurred in the ‘Younger Middle Adult’ category (see Table
Summary Table of all Analysed Individuals with Evidence of Decapitation.
Skeleton Number | Site | County | Age Range | Age Category | Sex | Period | Position of Skull | Site Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||||
Sk. 42 | Owenbristy | Galway | 24-29 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval AD 653–671 | Skull missing - individual buried in a pile (decapitated, drawn and quartered) | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 93 | Owenbristy | Galway | 25-29 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval AD 634–659 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 82 | Owenbristy | Galway | 27-35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval AD 647–664 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 49 | Owenbristy | Galway | 13-15 years | Adolescent | Indeterminate | Early Medieval AD 616–647 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 9 | Owenbristy | Galway | 25-39 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval AD 619–655 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 73 | Owenbristy | Galway | 25–35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Female | Early Medieval AD 623–657 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 75 | Owenbristy | Galway | 35-45 years | Older Middle Adult | Female | Early Medieval | Skull missing | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial CCLXXXI | Mount Gamble, Swords | Dublin | 25-29 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 656 - 765 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial CXCI | Mount Gamble, Swords | Dublin | 25-35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 810 - 975 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial CCLX | Mount Gamble, Swords | Dublin | 25-34 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 10 | Church Road, Lusk | Dublin | 35-44 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 410 - 570 | Skull missing | Ecclesiastical Site |
SK. 9 | Church Road, Lusk | Dublin | 35-44 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval: AD 410 - 570 | Skull missing | Ecclesiastical Site |
Sk. 356 | Mount Offaly, Cabinteely | Dublin | 25 - 29 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval: | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 281 | Mount Offaly, Cabinteely | Dublin | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Early Medieval: | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 1347 | Mount Offaly, Cabinteely | Dublin | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Early Medieval: | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 701 | Mount Offaly, Cabinteely | Dublin | 17 - 25 years | Young Adult | Male | Early Medieval: | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 546 | Mount Offaly, Cabinteely | Dublin | 30 - 35 years | Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval: | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial 1222 | St. Brendan’s Cathedral, Ardfert | Kerry | 30 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Medieval? | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
Burial 2217 | St. Brendan’s Cathedral, Ardfert | Kerry | 30 - 40 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
Sk. 165 | Augherskea | Meath | 36 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull missing | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 87 | Augherskea | Meath | 26 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 2 | Augherskea | Meath | 36 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 141 | Augherskea | Meath | 36 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 210848 | Raystown | Meath | 18 - 25 years | Young Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 550-660 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 145 | Johnstown | Meath | 18 - 25 years | Young Adult | Male | Later Medieval; AD 1230-1300 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 26 | Johnstown | Meath | Adult | Adult | Male | Early-Late Medieval; AD 880-1010 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 505:3 | Patrick Street | Dublin | 40-55 years | Older Adult | Male | Medieval? | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Sk. 505.4 | Patrick Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male | Medieval? | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Burial 1 | Abbey St./Dominic St., Tralee | Kerry | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Later Medieval - 17th century | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
Sk 15 (XV) | Millockstown | Louth | 45+ years | Older Adult | Male | Early Medieval? | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 49 (XLIX) | Dooey | Donegal | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval? | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 1 | Sonna Demesne | Westmeath | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 424-598 | Skull placed anatomically | Isolated Burial |
Sk. 484 | Parknahown | Laois | 18 - 25 years | Young Adult | Female | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial CLIX | Golden Lane | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
Sk. 33 | Ratoath | Meath | 36 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Female | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 54 | Colp | Meath | 26 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | N/A | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk. 4 | Oranmore | Galway | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Later Medieval? | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Sk. 159 | Ballinderry | Kildare | 19 - 25 years | Young Adult | Male | Late Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Sk 1942: 19A | Rossnaree | Meath | 26 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Female | Early Medieval | Skull placed anatomically | Isolated Burial |
Burial 14 | Knowth | Meath | 35 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Early Medieval; AD 668-870 | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
Burial 7164 | Bakehouse Lane/St. Peter’s Church | Waterford | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Hiberno-Norse (mid 11th - 12th century) | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
Sk. 48 | Tintern Abbey | Wexford | 25 - 30 years | Young Adult | Male | Later Medieval (16th century) | Skull placed anatomically | Ecclesiastical Site |
C120 | South Main Street | Cork | 45+ years | Older Adult | Male | Later Medieval? | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Burial 1 | Colp West | Meath | Mature Adult | Older Adult | Male | Medieval? Timber below inhumation 132-339AD | Skull placed anatomically | Cemetery Settlement |
338.1 | Christchurch Place | Dublin | 20 - 30 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Hiberno-Norse (mid 11th - 12th century) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
338.5 | Christchurch Place | Dublin | 30 - 40 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Hiberno-Norse (mid 11th - 12th century) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
338.3 | Christchurch Place | Dublin | 30 - 40 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Hiberno-Norse (mid 11th - 12th century) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
173.15 | Trim Castle | Meath | Adult | Adult | Male | Late 13th/Early 14th Century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
164.6 | Trim Castle | Meath | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Late 13th/Early 14th Century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
164.7 | Trim Castle | Meath | 30 - 40 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Late 13th/Early 14th Century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
F99 | The Green Building, Temple Lane | Dublin | Younger Middle Adult | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Late Medieval | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 3 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 2 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 20 - 25 years | Young Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 4 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 1 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 9 (a) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 17 - 21 years | Young Adult | Female | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 9 (b) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male? | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 7 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Female? | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 6 (a) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 6 (b) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Older Child/Adolescent | Older Child/Adolescent | N/A | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 6 (c) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 10 (a) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male? | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 11 | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | <21 years | Older Child/Adolescent | N/A | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
Skull 10 (b) | No. 16, Eustace Street | Dublin | 17 - 21 years | Adolescent | Male? | Later Medieval (post 1600 AD) | Disarticulated skull | Disarticulated skull |
231 | Lagore Crannog | Meath | Adult | Adult | Female | Early Medieval | Disarticulated skull | Crannóg |
262 | Lagore Crannog | Meath | Adult | Adult | Male? | Early Medieval | Disarticulated skull | Crannóg |
264 | Lagore Crannog | Meath | Adult | Adult | Male? | Early Medieval | Disarticulated skull | Crannóg |
Sk. 3 | Claregalway | Galway | Adult | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Later Medieval; AD 1290 - 1410 | Buried in pit with another skull (Skeleton 2) | Cemetery Settlement? |
C. 2685 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 3263 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 4127a | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 4031 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 4127 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | Adult | Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 3197 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 4134 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 35 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 2668 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 25 - 35 years | Younger Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 4134c | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 20 - 24 years | Young Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
C. 304 | 26 - 29 Castle Street | Dublin | 35 - 45 years | Older Middle Adult | Male | Mid - Late 10th century | Disarticulated skull | Urban |
As noted above, the majority of individuals in this study (who could be sexed)
showing evidence of decapitation are male. However, there are seven females in
total showing evidence of decapitation. There are two females from Owenbristy,
County Galway with evidence of decapitation (Skeleton 73, a female dated to the
7th century AD aged 25 to 35 years who also showed evidence of
facial mutilation (see Figure
Skeleton 73 from Owenbristy, County Galway, a female dated to the 7th century AD aged 25 to 35 years who displays evidence of stab wounds to the facial bones (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
Skull 9(a) from No. 16., Eustace Street, Dublin, a young adult female who also displays evidence of cut marks to the face, indicative of the nose being cut off (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
Skeleton 484, female from Parknahown, County Laois dated to the Early Medieval period aged 18 to 25 years who also displays evidence of stab wounds to the internal surface of the mandible (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
It is worthwhile to note that it is perhaps no coincidence that three of the seven females showing evidence of decapitation have also had their faces mutilated; this possibly indicates that in these instances the decapitation may have followed a specific punishment. An examination of the Brehon and Canon laws for the period did not uncover any prescriptions for specific mutilation of females that could relate to these injuries, but there does appear to be a pattern to these injuries that is unlikely to be coincidental.
As can be seen in Table
When the data are divided into the categories ‘skull missing’ (Figure
Positioning of the skull of decapitated individuals by date. ‘Skull Missing’ refers to a burial of an intact or almost intact individual where there is osteological evidence for decapitation and the skull is missing. ‘Disarticulated Skull’ refers to a skull that is found without a body. Finally, ‘Articulated Skull’ refers to the burial of an individual where there is osteological evidence for decapitation yet the skull is placed in the grave anatomically.
Positioning of skull of decapitated individual by site type.
Skeleton 42 from Owenbristy, County Galway, a cemetery settlement, who
was an adult male dated to AD 653 to 671 who was decapitated with the
skull missing. He also displayed evidence of 114 stab and cut marks and
from the burial position appears to have been drawn and quartered (
The double burial of two adult males CCLXXX and CCLXXXI dating from AD
656 to 765 from Mount Gamble, Dublin both displaying evidence of
decapitation with both skulls in situ (
Skull 505.4 from Patrick Street, Dublin. This was an adult male skull without a body that was dated to the later medieval period and was found in the lower levels of a drained river with another skull that had been disarticulated as a result of decapitation (Image reproduced with the kind permission of the National Museum of Ireland).
As Janes has pointed out ‘although severed heads always speak, they say
different things in different cultures’ (
The majority of decapitated individuals were buried with the rest of the
community in cemetery settlements or ecclesiastical sites
There were a number of later medieval examples of decapitated skulls found in
isolation at urban sites such as at Oranmore, County Galway; Trim Castle, County
Meath; and Patrick Street, Eustace Street, and Christchurch Place in Dublin. It
seems likely that these represent the decapitation and possible display and
subsequent disposal of heads from the walls of buildings or towns and these
burials date to the Hiberno-Norse and Later Medieval periods
There are three multiple burials represented in this study, at Augherskea, County
Meath, Mount Gamble and Lusk, County Dublin. Leigh Fry (
These three double burials also come from cemeteries that have other unusual
features. Burial 87 from Augherskea was decapitated and was buried with a pig
mandible on his pelvis. This practice was also seen at Kevin Street, Dublin,
where a male skull showing evidence of weapon trauma had the skeleton of a dog
buried with it. A way to dishonour a dead person (and thus grievously insult his
kin group) was to place the corpse in contact with an animal. Giraldus
Cambrensis and the author of ‘MacCarthaig’s book’ both
recorded that Donnchad, father of Diarmait Mac Murchada, was buried under the
Dublin assembly hall with a dead dog, ‘as a mark of hatred and
contempt’. This type of insult was not unknown elsewhere in Europe, for
example, Galbert of Bruges recorded that one of the murderers of Charles the
Good, Count of Flanders, was hanged without his breeches and a dog’s
intestines were then wrapped around his neck (
The burials from Lusk were buried outside the monastic enclosure. The seventh
century
Finally, the burials at Sonnagh Demesne appears to be different from those
mentioned above. These date from the 5th to 7th centuries
and consist of two males, both of whom suffered violent trauma and one who was
decapitated and buried alone. Although these individual burials had been buried
separately from the rest of the community, they were nonetheless buried with
some care. This initially appears to be unusual, as the burial location is
isolated and apparently within unconsecrated ground - there is no evidence to
suggest that this had ever been a place with special Christian significance.
A more likely scenario is that perhaps these two burials represent what could be
termed ‘deviant’ burials. In a Christian context adult social
deviants such as unrepentant murderers, their victims, suicides, strangers,
execution victims, and excommunicates (among others), as well as some children,
particularly the un-baptised, may have been denied burial in consecrated ground.
Perhaps individuals excavated from sites that are not normative cemeteries
represent those who were denied a Christian burial (
In summary, the majority of individuals showing evidence of decapitation were buried with the rest of the community and no attempt was made to segregate them further in death. The other burials seem to also display patterns; the double burials at Lusk, Mount Gamble and Augherskea are similar to each other and to the burial of disarticulated skulls interred. Perhaps what we are seeing from the mortuary practices is that those buried normally with the rest of the family were not decapitated as a result of warfare, but that those interred in double graves died as a result of violent death after a battle or skirmish. It is also important to consider the placement of skulls within the grave, and to do so it is necessary to examine the possible reasons for decapitation in medieval Ireland to fully interpret this information.
Anthropological and historical texts provide many examples of social reasons that
motivate decapitation across cultures and from many periods. In order to
distinguish one from another it is necessary to combine the physical evidence
left by the act with the archaeological contexts in which it occurs.
Decapitation may occur for the following reasons (
As a form of corporal punishment in which an individual is executed by severing the head from the body through the use of an edged weapon.
As a consequence of armed confrontation in which the neck becomes a target in order to disable or kill a foe.
To provide a trophy of armed confrontation.
As a form of relic collection of veneration.
Perhaps among the most familiar and recent excavated examples of decapitation
comes as a consequences of execution. During the medieval and early modern
period, this form of corporal punishment was frequently employed for those
deemed to be traitors against the state. During the medieval period, execution
by beheading was performed with the individual either kneeling or standing
upright and appears to have been associated with ignominy (
Skeleton 484 from Parknahown, County Laois, a young adult female dated to the early medieval period, showing cut marks to the posterior side of the fifth cervical vertebra (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
Skeleton 26 from Johnstown, County Meath, an adult male dated to 880 to 1010 AD, showing cut marks on the anterior surface of the second cervical vertebra (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
Lateral side of right mandible of Skeleton 49 from Dooey, County Donegal, a 25 to 35 year old adult male dated to the early medieval period, displaying numerous cut marks indicating several attempts at decapitation (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
In general, Irish canon law places more emphasis on the death penalty than the
secular law tracts. Thus the introduction to the Old Irish version of Canon IV
states: ‘There are three types of crime which a person commits: a crime
which is of lesser value than himself for which he pays from his own property; a
crime which is of equal value to himself for which he goes (into slavery); a
crime which is of greater value than he is for which he is killed and a fine
paid by his kindred’. In the secular law-texts, on the other hand, the
death penalty seems to be employed only as an alternative to payment or
enslavement (
Another interesting point to note is a passage in the ‘Brehon Law
Tracts’ that specifically limits the amount of damages the living may seek
from kin of the dead: ‘Stock does not increase on a tomb; his crime dies
with the criminal if he has been lawfully buried after death under the sod of
any lawful tomb’. This may also explain why it was necessary to bury those
who may be considered ‘deviant’ as their crime died with them if
they were buried in consecrated soil (
One would expect to encounter combat related trauma throughout the medieval
period in Ireland. Normally, decapitation in such a situation leaves evidence of
a chop mark (not an incised or cut mark), indicating that a heavy weapon was
involved, coming from one side of the neck or the other (depending on the hand
preference of the assailant or the way that the victim was facing) with the
weight of the weapon and force of the blow creating a fracture than then removes
the head. Usually in such instances one would expect to have other evidence of
weapon trauma to another part of the body, often in the form of defence injuries
to the forearms and hands as the individual attempted to ward off the blow (such
as with Burial CCLX from Mount Gamble, Swords, County Dublin – see Figure
Burial CCLX from Mount Gamble, Swords, County Dublin, a 25 to 35 year old adult male dated to the early medieval period, showing defensive wounds to the left hand (Image reproduced courtesy of the National Museum of Ireland).
The majority of the burials with evidence of decapitation have the head included
anatomically in the grave (as outlined above). It has been suggested that in
Celtic culture, the head was considered the most important part of the body
(
The fact that the crania of most of the individuals represented in the data included in this paper were replaced anatomically in the grave (the two burials from Church Road in Lusk, County Dublin, Skeleton 156 from Augherskea, County Meath and Skeleton 42 from Owenbristy, County Galway being obvious exceptions) and were not separated from the post-cranial skeleton suggests that display of the decapitated head was not a motivating factor in these instances. Likewise, although heads were collected as relics during the medieval period, the fact that the heads are in the graves, rules this out as an explanation for the decapitations in this study.
It can perhaps be suggested that the burial evidence points toan attempt to
‘recapiate’ the individual after decapitation so that they were able
to face God on the Day of Judgement to be judged for their crimes (by being
decapitated on earth, these individuals had paid their corporeal punishment).
There are also numerous accounts of recapitation in the hagiographies (
It is not possible to give one single explanation for the decapitations presented in this study. The likelihood is that the individuals represent those who had been decapitated as a result of a judicial practice or those decapitated as a result of warfare. By using the osteological data in conjunction with the information about mortuary practices, it is possible to begin exploring the motivating factors behind decapitation in medieval Ireland.
The author is grateful to the IRCHSS (Irish Research Council) and Kildare Archaeological Society (KAS) which fund the PhD research of which this paper is a part. I am also grateful to my supervisor, Dr Barra Ó Donnabháin (UCC), for guidance and discussion. All images of the the human remains are copyright of National Museum of Ireland and I am grateful for permission to reproduce them here. The author would like to thank; Carmelita Troy, Jonny Geber, Deirdre Murphy, Mara Tesorieri, Barra Ó Donnabháin, Matt Seaver, Natasha Powers, Denise Keating, Margaret Gowen, Catryn Power, Ed O’Donovan, and Christine Baker for providing archaeological reports and information for the sites mentioned above. I would also like to thank Dr Andrew Halpin and Judith Finlay (NMI),Griffith Murray at Tralee County Museum, Jo Moran at Archaeographics, Deirdre Murphy of ACS Ltd, Jacinta Kiely of Eactra Archaeological Services Ltd, and Damien Shiels of Rubicon Heritage Services for providing access to the remains for analysis. I gratefully acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their detailed and helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. All errors and ommisions are solely the responsibility of the author.
“The halved heads” are “like grains of sea-sand, stars in heaven,
dew-drops on May Day, flakes of snow, hailstones, leaves in a forest, buttercups in
Brega and grass blades, under the hoofs of a horse-herd on a summers day”
(
These individuals were sexed and aged using the standards outlined by Buikstra
and Ubelaker (
A cemetery settlement is an early medieval site with evidence of burial,
agricultural practice, craftworking and other settlement features but without
any obvious signs of ecclesiastical involvement. Whereas an ecclesiastical site
refers to a site with evidence of burial and a church (
Perimortem trauma refers to an injury occurring around the time of death,
slightly before or slightly after (see